Endnotes

¹US$ = United States dollar.

²East Asia here comprises 16 economies: Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; PRC; Hong Kong, China; Indonesia; Republic of Korea; Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDR); Malaysia; Mongolia; Myanmar; Philippines; Singapore; Taipei,China; Thailand; Viet Nam; plus Japan.

³Source: Calculated from United Nations Comtrade data (S2, items-total).

⁴TEU stands for twenty-foot equivalent unit, a standard measure of shipping container size.

⁵In the Indonesian archipelago, where around 90% of external trade (and much of domestic trade) passes through ports, exporters seeking to distribute raw materials tend to follow the “trade follows the ships” principle: they are attracted to ports with shipping routes that best reach the desired markets (Patunru, Nurridzki, and Rivayani 2009). Regions where service-sector exports are more important tend to follow the “ships follow the trade” principle, whereby ships are routed to serve the desired regions.

⁶Landlocked countries are those that do not have access to an open sea. Some landlocked countries, such as Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, or Turkmenistan have access to an inland sea, such as the Caspian.

⁷United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2008) suggests that a multidimensional approach is needed to tackle these problems. This involves developing adequate national transport networks and efficient transit systems, promoting regional or subregional economic integration, and encouraging FDI in economic activities that are not distance-sensitive. For example, in 1995, the United Nations General Assembly endorsed the Global Framework for Transit Transport Cooperation between Land-locked and Transit Developing Countries and the Donor Community with a view to enhancing transit systems and enabling Land-locked and Developing Countries to reduce their marginalization from world markets.

⁸We define APEC Asia as including Singapore; Malaysia; Indonesia; Hong Kong, China; Taipei,China; Japan; Korea; Philippines; PRC; Thailand; and Viet Nam.

⁹In all but a few instances, border facilitation involves two countries.

¹⁰Released August 2008 (see https://www.gtap.agecon.purdue.edu/databases/v7/default.asp). See also Hertel (1997) for a complete description of the GTAP model.

¹¹The trade cost values determined in Strutt, Stone, and Minor (2008) were mapped to the regional breakdown examined in this paper. Details of the mapping are available from the authors upon request.

¹²EU15 = Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom.

¹³The Rest of APEC here consists of the Chile, Peru, Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Australia and New Zealand, also members of APEC are included in their own category while Russia is included in the rest of the world (ROW).

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